Plant materials have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times, keeping natural sources as the primary source of all drugs until about a century ago (Joo, 2014; Pan et al., 2014). Environment and nature have offered many remedies to treat human ailments. Almost half a million plant species are currently used as medicinal plants worldwide (Mukhuddin et al., 2024). As of the latest available data from the World Health Organization, 70-80% of people in South Asian countries use various plants as their primary source of medicine to cure different diseases, including cough, cold, and fever. Traditional medicine is practiced mainly in India, China, Japan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Thailand (Musa et al., 2023). Bangladesh has been profusely prosperous in medicinal plants due to favorable weather and fertile land (Mukul et al., 2007; Prodhan et al., 2017). Bangladeshi forests, jungles, hills, and flatlands possess at least five thousand herbs, shrubs, trees, and aromatic and aquatic plants (M. Rahman & Fakir, 2015). Not surprisingly, a district in the southern part of Bangladesh named Gopalganj is also considered an extra habitat for numerous medicinal plants (Siddique et al., 2021). The socio-economic conditions in Gopalganj significantly impact the health of its population. Despite a steady increase in healthcare facilities, the overall situation remains challenging. Only 30% of the population has access to primary healthcare services. Approximately 20% of the population can avail themselves of Western medicines, while the majority, about 75-80% of rural residents, still rely on traditional ethnomedicine practitioners for health care worldwide (Shahen et al., 2019; Shah et al., 2013).

These practitioners are crucial in providing primary healthcare services to rural communities. Besides, they have been used as therapeutic agents and raw materials for modern medicine. Traditional medical practitioners, not only in Gopalganj but also in the Indian subcontinent, have long utilized medicinal plants like Vitex negundo, Moringa oleifera, Madhuca longifolia, Achyranthes aspera, and Aloe indica for treating various diseases. Many of the population of the world still heavily rely on herbal medicines to keep themselves healthy and disease-free (Alamgir et al., 2018; Gurib-Fakim, 2006; Mohd et al., 2012; Parveen et al., 2020). Medicinal plants are rich in antioxidants and secondary metabolites that protect against diseases linked to free radicals (Lawal et al., 2017; Savithramma et al., 2011). For instance, Ocimum sanctum L. has been finely recorded for its therapeutic potential and described as an antiasthmatic and antiseptic drug (Dubey & Pandey, 2018). Recent observations by different health authorities have demonstrated that plant medicines have been used progressively by less developed areas as they are the only means of keeping healthy there, and also have been used by developed countries as they produce fewer side effects with a greater probability of getting well from various diseases (Salmerón-Manzano & Manzano-Agugliaro, 2020). 

In this survey, we aimed to demonstrate the relationship between the availability of valuable medicinal plant in the local area of Gopalganj and their usage method. We also demonstrated how an underdeveloped area of Bangladesh has survived cough, cold, and fever for thousands of years, almost only through traditional medicines. As different plant medicines are ubiquitous in the Gopalganj district, so biotechnologists have an excellent opportunity to develop a multipurpose variety of plants through various genetic manipulations. However, there remains a limited understanding of their mechanisms of action, and integrating these traditional practices with modern medicine has been a challenge (Rahman et al., 2013; Matos et al., 2021; Rony et al., 2019).

Study area
Gopalganj is a district in the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh, with 1,172,415 inhabitants and a surface area of 1,490 km2. It is located on the bank of the Madhumati River. The maximum and minimum average temperature in Gopalganj district varies from 8.6°C to 23.3°C. The study covers forty villages (Parulia, Kumaria, Sonadanga, Krisnopur, Laxmipur, Digharkul, Shibpur, Sajail, Kusumdia, Haridashpur, Majra Bathoydupa, Ratkandi, Haturia, Vadulia, Bairpara, Chotokharkandi, Mahanag, Teguria, Bethuri, Rahimdia, Narail, Dhirail, Puisur, Hatisur, Dlnia, Bagajuru, Gopinathpur, Vabanipur, Gonapara, Haridaspur, Paranpur, Fakirkandi, Manikharpur, Tetigati, Vojargati, Vatiapara, Nijamkandi and Kati) under the Madhumati floodplain in Gopalganj Sadar and Kashiani upazila under the Gopalganj district. 

Methodology
In this survey-based study, traditional medicinal plant data were collected from local people and kavirajes across the Gpalganj sadar upazila and Kashiani upazila of Gopalganj district through interviews and questionnaire fill-out between during 24th May to 7th July 2022. The questionnaire included:

• Questions addressing the place of the interview.
• Interviewees characteristics.
• Plants local name.
• The indications of local use.
• The used parts.
• The methods of use.
• The season of occurrence.
• The types of plants.

Secondary data and information were collected by searching from PubMed, Science Direct, Research Gate, Google Scholar, Google, CD-ROM, and previous research and survey reports. MS-Excel is used to process all collected information by microcomputer. Responses to the completed questionnaires were numerically coded and analyzed using a Microsoft Excel sheet. Moreover, descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage distribution were used to analyze data, and graphs and tables were used to interpret the findings.

Plants have been the most dependable sources of traditional medicine since ancient times (JamshidiKia, Lorigooini, & Amini-Khoei, 2017). Folk physicians rely on plants for their medicinal properties, as they contain metabolites with pharmacological benefits (Wangkheirakpam, 2018). Different parts of plants serve as valuable sources of these pharmaceutical metabolites, possessing antibiotic and antimicrobial properties (Abdel-Razek et al., 2020; Youssef et al., 2019). In this investigation, we found that root and bark of Plumbago indica L. has antimicrobial solid properties (Bashir & Kumar, 2021; Dissanayake et al., 2022). Moreover, Azadirachta indica, Brassica napus,Plumbago indica L., Piper betle, Piper longumL., Terminalia bellirica and Tinospora cordifolia contain various types of secondary metabolites (alkaloids, benzoyllineolone , glycerol, bezoylisolineolone etc.) which show different pharmacological properties to treat cough, cold and fever.  

They also provide ready-made food that sustains us and offers medicinal properties to combat various diseases (Gębczyński et al., 2022). Traditional medicines are the collective knowledge and practices used for diagnosing and preventing physical, social, and mental imbalances (Organization, 1978). These rely solely on practical experience and observations passed down through generations, either verbally or in writing. The constant and excessive use of medicinal plants in drugs has led to their decline (Jamshidi-Kia et al., 2017). Therefore, this study suggested that preserving medicinal plants based on ethnobotanical knowledge acquired from local communities is essential.

Cough, cold, and fever are prevalent and significant public health issues, particularly among populations with poor hygiene standards, especially in developing countries (Zanuzdana et al., 2013). These ailments continue to be the leading cause of morbidity and mortality across all age groups, with an estimated four million cases occurring annually. Their research findings concluded that herbal treatments still play a vital role as home remedies for these conditions (Ciprandi & Tosca; 2022). This study focused on using traditional medicines to combat the prevalent cough, cold, and fever in the Gopalganj district of Bangladesh. Numerous Kavirajies (folk physicians) utilize their traditional plant knowledge to treat these ailments. Forty-two plants, spanning 33 families, were employed in these treatments. The most commonly used parts of these plants in traditional medicine were the leaves and roots (Rahman et al., 2013). In this surveybased study, we have demonstrated how different parts of plants, i.e., fruit, rhizome, bulbs, leaves, flower, root, bark and even whole plants, possess medicinal value to combat various diseases, especially cough, cold and fever (Ballabh & Chaurasia, 2007; Muthu et al., 2006). Notably, the whole plant was most frequently used for treating cough, cold and fever more than other parts of the medicinal plants (Gazi et al., 2013). These plant parts serve as valuable sources of pharmaceutical metabolites, possessing antibiotic and antimicrobial properties.  

Modern medicine is gradually replacing traditional practices (Angmo et al., 2012; Hong, 2004; Patwardhan & Partwardhan, 2005). However, this project highlights traditional medicines scientific basis and usage methods. The survey provides valuable data for further research on natural remedies and could lead to developing new drugs for treating cough, cold, and fever. Despite the numerous data on plants for the treatment of various diseases available, there were some limitations in our understanding of the scientific basis and the usage method of plant parts for the treatment of cough, cold, and fever (Ludwig & El-Hani, 2020; Taylor et al., 2001; Upton et al., 2020). 

In this survey, we have tried to make a bridge between the availability of valuable medicinal plant in the local area of Gopalganj and their usage method. Therefore, this survey might be a data storehouse for botanists, biotechnologists, and pharmacists for novel gene extraction from plants that can withstand different diseases. Finally, this project highlights the convergence between modern and traditional medicine according to conventional medicines scientific basis and usage methods. The survey provides valuable data for further research on natural remedies and could lead to the development of new drugs for treating cough, cold, and fever.  

The investigation, writing-original draft, was prepared by I.H.S, modifying draft preparation, editing, data creation, and figures were prepared by T.A.E. and A.K.B, Writing review, Editing, Visualization, and References were prepared by S.K.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 

We want to express our sincere gratitude to the Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj, which has been dedicated to providing technological support. 

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.