Onion (Allium cepa L.), a member of the Liliaceae family, is one of the most important and widely cultivated vegetable crops globally, including in Afghanistan. It holds nutritional, economic, and cultural value, historically referenced in ancient civilizations and religious texts. Onion is known for its high water content (87.6%), carbohydrates (5.6%), and other essential nutrients, making it a key part of diets worldwide. Cultivation involves selecting appropriate varieties, soil preparation, planting, and careful post-harvest management, all of which influence yield and quality of onion. Historically, the onion is considered one of the oldest cultivated crops, dating back over 4,000 years, with origins believed to be in Central Asia, particularly present-day Turkmenistan and Afghanistan (Zohary & Hopf, 2000). Today, onions remain an essential source of income for smallholder farmers (Shahen et al., 2019; Sivashankar et al., 2023). 

Globally, over 206 million metric tons of onions were produced in 2021, led by China (34.8 million metric tons) and India (31.2 million tons) (Anon., 2022). In Afghanistan, onion is the second most important vegetable crop after potato. In Afghanistan, onion is the second most important vegetable crop after potato. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, onion production increased from 131,000 metric tons in 2019 to 541,225 metric tons in 2022. This growth is mainly due to the expansion of cultivated land and higher market demand. During the same period, the area under onion cultivation also expanded significantly, reaching approximately 304,070 hectares, as reported in the referenced study (MAIL, 2024). Nangarhar Province plays a key role in this growth, producing over 43,000 metric tons in 2024 from 4,387 hectares  (MAIL 2022)  Despite its importance, onion production in Afghanistan faces challenges such as weak infrastructure, limited access to markets, inadequate storage, and poor agricultural practices (Ali et al., 2022). Furthermore, price fluctuations and lack of marketing knowledge hinder farmers' profitability (Khan et al., 2023; Baker et al., 2023).

Although several studies have examined agricultural challenges in Afghanistan, there remains a lack of focused empirical research on the specific production and marketing difficulties faced by onion farmers in Nangarhar province. This study addresses this gap by investigating the key factors influencing onion cultivation and market performance in the region. Therefore, the present study aims to analyze the socio-economic status and to identify the main constraint faced by onion growers and traders in the study area.

Study Area 

This study was conducted in Nangarhar Province, which covers an area of 7727 square kilometres and has a population of approximately 1.7 million (Hidayat et al., 2023). The researcher, being a permanent resident of Nangarhar, was well familiar with the province's values, customs and traditions. Fieldwork was carried out in eight purposively selected districts Kuz Kunar Pachir wa Agam, Chaparhar, Surkh Rod, Rodat, Kama Goshta and Bati Kot due to their relatively higher levels of onion production compared to other districts. According to 2024 data from the Directorate of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock (DAIL)  these districts together account for 74.39% of the cultivated onion area and contribute about (79.63%) of the province's total onion production. Among them, (28.33%) of the cultivated land is occupied by Surkh Rod district and 35.52% of the total output is produced there, followed by Rodat district with (12.86%) of the cultivated area and (15.26%) of production, and Bati Kot district with (11.28%) of the total output produced.

Sample size

Data were collected using the Simple Random Sampling (SRS) technique from a list available from the Directorate of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (DAIL), Nangarhar, based on a predetermined sample size, with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.

Cochran's Formula for Sample Size

The following formula was used to calculate the sample size:

 n=(Z^2  × p× q     )/e^2    ………………………… (1)

Where,

  z= 1.96 (at % 95 confidence level) based  on the standard normal z table

P = 0.5

q = 0.5 (1-p)

n =196

e2 = margin error 0.07

In this study, the value of ( z ) was taken from the standard normal Z table corresponding to the 95% confidence level. The proportion was assumed to be 0.5. The margin of error (e) was set at 0.07. By substituting these values into the formula, the required sample size was calculated as follows.

Sampling procedure 

A total of 136 onion farmers were selected from eight districts of Nangarhar Province to assess constraints in onion production and marketing. The number of farmers from each district was determined according to the level of onion production. Higher-producing district, were allocated larger samples. A total number of 34 farmers were selected from Rodat, 17 farmers from Surkh Rod, district, Goshta, district, and Bati Kot, district, and 12 farmers from each of the remaining four districts (Kama, Pachir wa Agam, Chaparhar, and Kuz Kunar) with relatively lower production. This ensured adequate representation across different production zones. Additionally, data were collected from 60 traders selected through simple random sampling from two major onion markets in Nangarhar Province, namely Kabul Hadda Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Market and Amanat Khan Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Market. The number of traders selected from each market varied according to the market size and the total number of traders operating in each market. The application of the simple random sampling technique ensured that every trader had an equal chance of being selected, thereby minimizing bias and making the sample statistically representative of the broader population engaged in onion production and marketing in the region.

Analytical Techniques 

Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of onion growers and traders. Additionally, two main analytical methods, or techniques, were applied to examine the production and marketing constraints faced by the respondents. i.e. in case of farmer, ‘constraint faced index' and in case of traders, ‘Garret ranking technique'.

Constraints faced index (CFI) for farmers 

The Constraints Faced Index (CFI) was commonly used in social science research to measure the intensity of constraints experienced by respondents (Shah and Ansari 2020). In this method, respondents indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement on a five-point scale, very high (4), high (3), medium (2), low (1), and none (0). Each response reflects the severity of the constraint. The CFI is calculated by summing the weighted scores as follows:

CFI=C_vh×4+C_h×3+C_m×2+C_l×1+C_0×0…………….(2)

Where,

CFI = Constraint Faced Index

Cvh = No. of vegetable growers faced very high constraints

Ch = No. of vegetable growers faced high constraints

Cm = No. of vegetable growers faced medium constraints

Cl = No. of vegetable growers faced low constraints

C0 = No. of vegetable growers faced no constraints

Garrett ranking Technique 

The questionnaire was designed as an effective instrument to assess the constraints faced by traders in onion marketing in Nangarhar province, and primary data were collected through a field survey. To prioritize the responses provided by the traders, the Garrett ranking technique was used as follows.

Per cent position=(100 〖(Rij 〗⁡〖-0.5)〗)/(Nj ) …………………………………………(3)

Where, 

Rij = Rank given for ith item by the individual

Nj= Numbers of items ranked by the individual

By using Garrett score table  the percent position of each rank was converted into scores and for each factor the score of each individual respondent was added together and was added together and was divided by the total number of respondent for whom were added the mean scores of all the factors  were arrived and ranks will be given. The factors having the highest mean value were considered to be the most important response (Dhanavandan 2016; Zalkuwi et al., 2015; Alam et al., 2015). 

This section presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents, focusing on age, education level, and household size. These indicators help to understand the socio-economic background of the onion farmers.

Table 1: Age-wise distribution of respondents in the study area.

Table 1 presents that of the farmers (35.29%) was 31–40 years old, followed by those aged 41–50 (27.94%) and 51–60 (24.26%). About 10 percent of respondents were 18 to 30 years old. Similarly, most traders were also between 31 and 40 years old (31.67%), followed by 41–50 years (26.67%). Traders aged 30 or below accounted for 20%, those 51–60 for 15%, and only 6.67% were above 60. Overall, individuals aged 31–50 form the main workforce in onion production and marketing in the area.

Table 2: Educational level of Onion Producers and Traders in the Study Area.

Table 2 shows the educational status of onion farmers and traders. More than half of the farmers (52.21%) were illiterate. About )14%( had schooling below grade 12, )11.03%( had completed high school, )9.56%( had secondary education, )12.50%( held a bachelor's degree, and )0.74%( held a master's degree. in contrast, traders were generally more educated. About 18.33% had schooling below grade 12, (21.67%) had completed high school, (6.67%) had secondary education, (28.33%) held a bachelor's degree, and (5%) held a master's degree, while (20%) were illiterate. overall, approximately (13%) of farmers and (33%) of traders possessed bachelor's or master's degrees, indicating a relatively higher educational attainment among traders compared to farmers in the study area.

Table 3: Classification of Onion Farmers and Traders According to Family Size.

Table 3 shows the family size distribution of onion farmers and traders. Most farmers lived in medium-sized households, with 27.21% having 6–10 members and 25% having 11–15 members. About 20.59% of respondents reported family sizes of 16–20 members, while very few (1.47%) had more than 25 members. Traders, however, tended to belong to larger households. Around 23.33% had 16–20 members, 21.67% had 21–25 members, and 16.67% had more than 25 members, whereas only 6.67% had fewer than six members. This pattern reflects a joint family system in the study area, where extended family members live together, share resources, and collectively take part in farming and marketing activities.

Production and Marketing Constraints

This part, presents the major production and marketing constraints faced by onion farmers in the study area. Understanding these challenges is important for identifying the key factors that affect productivity, profitability, and access to markets. The results highlight the main issues related to onion production, post-harvest handling, and marketing activities. 

Table 4 presents the production-related constraints experienced by onion growers in the study area. The results indicate that pest and disease infestation is the most serious challenge, receiving the highest weighted score (93.38%) and ranking first. closely associated with this, the difficulty in identifying pests and diseases (92.46%) ranks second, highlighting that plant protection remains a major, concern in both occurrence and management. Poor-quality seed (90.26%) emerges as the third significant constraint, suggesting that limited availability of certified or improved varieties reduces productivity and increases production risk.

Table 4: Production constraints faced by onion growers in the study area.

Water scarcity (86.03%) was also reported as a severe constraint, reflecting the vulnerability of onion cultivation to irrigation shortages in the region. High seed prices (82.54%) and limited knowledge regarding seedling treatment (81.62%) further hinder production efficiency, demonstrating that both input affordability and technical expertise play critical roles in onion farming. Additionally, the lack of awareness about improved varieties (79.23%) and the high cost of pesticides (75.35%) emerged as key barriers. The Financial Constraints of farmers (77.39%) also ranked high, indicating that financial limitations restrict their ability to adopt improved technologies and agricultural practices. other notable constraints included the non-availability of fertilizers on time (73.10%), lack of farming skills (70.59%), inadequate knowledge of recommended fertilizer doses (64.33%), high land rent (63.60%), and rising labor costs (52.76%). Although these factors ranked comparatively lower than pest-related issues, they collectively hinder production efficiency and farm profitability. The findings align with previous studies, reinforcing the critical nature of production barriers in onion farming. Shivam et al. (2023) in Haryana, India, similarly reported limited knowledge regarding seed treatment and harvesting practices among farmers. Kumar et al. (2020) also reported that water scarcity and high pesticide prices were major production challenges for onion farmers in Odisha, India. In addition, high seed costs and weak financial capacity limited farmers' ability to invest in improved production practices. Labor shortages, limited fertilizer knowledge, high land rental expenses, and inadequate farming skills further intensified production difficulties. These findings support the argument that onion farmers in developing agricultural regions often encounter multiple and severe production constraints. Jamali et al. (2023) additionally highlighted post-harvest and marketing challenges, noting that 87.5% of farmers in Khost lacked storage facilities, and price fluctuations troubled 84.2% of consumers.

Table 5 presents the major marketing constraints faced by onion growers in the study area. The most critical constraint reported was the low price at harvesting time (92.65%), primarily due to market oversupply during peak season. The absence of suitable markets (88.24%) and the strong influence of traders over price determination (86.58%) further limited farmers' bargaining power. Lack of government support in market development (85.48%) and unfair pricing practices by traders (82.35%) were also significant concerns. Delayed payments (80.15%) and inadequate storage facilities (76.47%) reduced farmers' ability to hold produce for better prices. Limited access to market information (75.37%), high packaging costs (70.95%), and insufficient knowledge on sorting and grading (69.49%) prevented farmers from obtaining premium prices. Other notable issues included lack of access to international markets (64.34%), high price fluctuations (63.70%), and poor transportation facilities with high costs (61.21%). Additionally, 38.79% of farmers reported the sale of spoiled or damaged onions as a marketing problem. Overall, findings indicate that price instability, weak market infrastructure, and limited institutional support collectively hinder efficient onion marketing in the region.

Table 5: Marketing Constraints Faced by Onion Growers in the Study Area.

These findings echo studies from Afghanistan and India (Jamali et al., 2023; Ullah et al., 2025; Rout, 2024; Longkumer et al., 2024; Yeshiwas et al., 2024), highlighting common issues such as inadequate infrastructure  price fluctuations, and poor market access. Addressing these through improved infrastructure, timely payments and better farmer education could significantly boost market efficiency and farmer incomes.

Table 6 shows the major marketing constraints faced by traders in the study area. The most serious issues were the lack of a unified market system (72.51) and poor quality of onions (71.43). Limited access to suitable export markets (67.10) and difficulty in selling lower-grade onions (61.06) were also significant challenges. 

Table 6: Marketing Constraints Faced by Onion Traders in the study area.

Other important constraints included inadequate physical market facilities (54.78) and wide price fluctuations (50.13). Traders further reported problems such as weak performance of essential market functions (46.93), lack of training programs (43.85), and customer resistance to fixed pricing (41.16). Additional, though relatively less severe, issues were perishability of onions (33.76), transportation challenges (31.66), and inaccurate weighing (29.15). Similar findings were reported by Jamali et al. (2023) in Khost, Afghanistan, where wholesalers cited inadequate storage (63.3%) and grading facilities (60.7%) as major constraints. These challenges led to quality inconsistency, higher post-harvest losses, lower profits, and delivery delays. Price volatility and weighing inaccuracies further weakened market trust and efficiency.

This study scientifically examines the key constraints in onion production and marketing in Nangarhar Province. The results indicate that farmers face serious challenges such as lack of certified seeds, water scarcity, pest and disease infestations, high production costs, and limited knowledge of modern agricultural practices. Addressing these issues requires a combination of measures, including the provision of quality seeds and agrochemicals, efficient irrigation management, integrated pest and nutrient management, and farmer training programs. Financial support through subsidies and credit schemes plays a crucial role in enabling farmers to adopt improved technologies. on the marketing side, traders encounter constraints including poor product quality, limited export opportunities, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of access to timely market information. Strengthening the onion value chain requires the expansion of domestic and export markets, establishment of standardized grading and storage systems, and provision of reliable market intelligence. Investments in transport and storage infrastructure, along with training in price determination and market management, can minimize post-harvest losses, stabilize prices, and enhance competitiveness. 

Therefore, it is recommended that the Ministry of Agriculture should take the lead in disseminating improved cultivars, promoting modern production techniques, and introducing pre- and post-harvest technologies. Furthermore, strengthening farmer-trader linkages through integrated markets and expanding regional trade networks will not only enhance productivity and incomes but also ensure the long-term stability and growth of Afghanistan's onion sector.

This research was conducted in compliance with ethical standards. All necessary approvals were obtained, and participants' consent was ensured before data collection.

F.K.A.: research design, data collection, analysis, and writing were completed by the researcher. Academic supervision and offered advisory input was provided by M.I.H.; and K.M.A.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor , Dr. Mohammad Ismail Hashime who has always guided me and generously ,devoted his valuable time to help me  throughout my work. 

Regarding the publication of this manuscript, there is no any conflict of interest.