Poultry production is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing sectors in Bangladesh's agricultural economy, contributing significantly to food security, employment, and rural livelihoods. The country's poultry industry produces nearly 40% of the total animal protein consumed nationally and employs over six million people directly and indirectly (DLS, 2023). However, despite its rapid expansion, the sector remains highly vulnerable to infectious disease outbreaks such as Avian Influenza (AI), Newcastle Disease (ND), Salmonellosis, and Mycoplasmas, which continue to cause substantial economic losses each year. Ensuring effective biosecurity, the strategic combination of physical, managerial, and procedural measures to prevent the entry and spread of pathogens is therefore crucial for the sustainability of Bangladesh's poultry industry.

In the context of Bangladesh, maintaining high biosecurity standards has been a persistent challenge, especially among small- and medium-scale farms that dominate the sector. Studies have shown that most commercial farms practice partial or inconsistent biosecurity, often neglecting critical areas such as farm access control, waste disposal, and personal protective equipment (PPE) use (Hassan et al., 2023; Akter et al., 2025). For instance, (Akter, Uddin, & Dhar, 2023) reported that smallholder broiler farms in northern Bangladesh followed basic disinfection and cleaning routines but lacked fencing, vehicle control, and visitor restrictions. Similarly, (Hassan et al., 2023) found that while structural hygiene (e.g., rodent and wild bird control) was relatively satisfactory in central Bangladesh, record-keeping, employee training, and protective clothing usage were poorly implemented. These patterns highlight that awareness of biosecurity principles does not always translate into practice, often due to financial constraints, lack of monitoring, or limited training (Husen et al., 2022).

Several other Bangladeshi studies have emphasized that the level of biosecurity varies significantly by farm type, location, and management system. Rahman et al. (2023) evaluated conceptual and operational biosecurity in layer farms and observed an average compliance rate of 66%, with better internal hygiene but poor external control. Likewise, (Islam et al., 2024) demonstrated that unrestricted vehicle and human movement between farms increased the risk of Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) contamination, while farms implementing strict access and disinfection protocols had substantially lower infection rates. (Alam et al., 2025; Mithy et al., 2024) also identified that lack of visitor logbooks and inadequate distance between poultry sheds were major weaknesses contributing to biosecurity breaches. Collectively, these studies suggest that although awareness about disease prevention has improved in recent years, biosecurity implementation remains fragmented and inconsistent across Bangladesh, particularly in peri-urban and rural clusters where small-scale farmers dominate production Chowdhury et al., 2023).

Dhaka District, one of the country's key poultry producing zones, represents a diverse mix of commercial and semi-commercial farms situated near densely populated settlements and major transport routes. These conditions potentially increase disease transmission risks due to close proximity between farms, human dwellings, and live-bird markets. However, limited empirical research has focused on the biosecurity status of poultry farms specifically within Dhaka District, despite its strategic importance as both a production and distribution hub. 

Understanding current compliance levels and identifying key weaknesses are therefore critical to guiding extension services and policy interventions. Against this background, the present study aims to assess the current biosecurity status of poultry farms in Dhaka District, focusing on three core dimensions conceptual, structural, and operational biosecurity. It further seeks to identify the relationship between farm characteristics and overall biosecurity performance. By comparing results with existing literature, this study contributes to the growing body of evidence on poultry health management in Bangladesh and provides practical recommendations for improving disease prevention and control across the sector.

Objective

The objective of this study is to evaluate the biosecurity status of poultry farms in Dhaka District, Bangladesh, focusing on conceptual, structural, and operational dimensions. It aims to assess the level of compliance, identify key factors influencing biosecurity performance, and determine associations between farm characteristics and overall biosecurity outcomes. The findings are intended to provide evidence-based insights for strengthening disease prevention and improving poultry health management across Bangladesh's farming sector.

This cross-sectional study was conducted between January and April 2025 in Dhaka District, one of Bangladesh's major poultry-producing regions characterized by high farm density and proximity to urban markets, which increase disease transmission risks. Five representative locations Dagortali, Enayetpur, Khejurtek, Nalam, and Savar were purposively selected to include both rural and peri-urban production systems with variation in farm size, management, and access to veterinary services. A total of 50 poultry farms (layer and broiler) were randomly chosen using a purposive-random sampling approach. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, field observations, and face-to-face interviews with farm owners or managers. The questionnaire was designed following the FAO biosecurity guidelines (Imam et al., 2021) and adapted from previous Bangladeshi studies (Hassan et al., 2023; Khalil et al., 2023; Arefin et al., 2024). 

Table 1: Demography of Poultry Farm Owners Involved in Biosecurity Evaluation.

It consisted of six sections covering demographic characteristics, conceptual, structural, and operational biosecurity indicators, as well as farm management and outbreak response measures. Each biosecurity indicator was scored on a binary scale (1 = compliant, 0 = non-compliant), and the overall score was calculated using the formula: Biosecurity Score (%) = (Number of positive responses ÷ Total indicators) × 100. Based on total scores, farms were categorized as high (≥70%), moderate (50–69%), or low (<50%) in compliance. Data were processed and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0, employing descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation, and Chi-square (χ²) tests to examine relationships between farm characteristics and biosecurity status at a 5% significance leve

Table 1 shows that most poultry farm owners were male (78%) and moderately educated, with primary (28%) and HSC (26%) levels being most common. Farms were mainly located in Dagortali (30%), followed by Khejurtek, Nalam, and Enayetpur. Over half of the owners had previous poultry experience (52%) and biosecurity training (58%), indicating a generally knowledgeable farming community. 

Table 2: Indicators of Conceptual Biosecurity.

Table 2 shows that most farms maintain moderate biosecurity standards but with notable gaps. A majority (62%) are located within 50 m of residential areas and 78% within 500 m of main roads, indicating limited spatial separation. Although 80% of poultry houses have good ventilation and are moisture-proof, 64% report standing water nearby. Only 58% provide biosecurity training, 48% keep disease records, and just 6% maintain a visitors' logbook. In general, farms show partial adherence to biosecurity practices, with weaknesses in location, hygiene, and record management.

Table 3 shows that while most farms practiced strong biosecurity against wildlife and water contamination (100% control of rodents, wild birds, and surface water use), structural measures were weaker. Only 22% had fences and gates, 38% prohibited vehicle entry, and none had a single-entry point. Visitor management was moderate, with 60% restricting entry but only 38% keeping logbooks. In general, farms maintained good internal hygiene but lacked consistent external access control. 

Table 3: Structural Biosecurity Indicators.

High compliance (≥70%) was noted in practices like driver entry restriction (80%), age separation (70%), and no outside staff contact (76%), while lower compliance (<40%) appeared in high-pressure cleaning (34%) and regular laundering (40%). In General, the data suggest that while certain operational biosecurity practices are well maintained, others particularly those involving personal protection and cleaning intensity require substantial improvement to ensure comprehensive biosecurity management.

Table 4 presents the operational biosecurity indicators observed across surveyed poultry farms. The findings reveal varying degrees of compliance with standard biosecurity measures. Notably, all farms (100%) reported calling a veterinarian when birds were sick, and 90% ensured cleaning and disinfection procedures, sick bird inspection, and visitor footwear changes. However, protective clothing was completely absent (0%), indicating a major gap in personal protective practices. Moderate adherence was observed for measures such as restricted access (50%), cleaning water drainage (50%), and two-week downtime (52%), reflecting partial implementation. 

Table 4: Operational Biosecurity Indicators.

From Table 5 the overall biosecurity performance among the surveyed poultry farms was moderate, with a mean score of 64.46% (SD = 4.38). Among the three components, Structural Biosecurity achieved the highest mean (65.27 ± 6.86), indicating relatively stronger control over physical facilities and infrastructure. Operational Biosecurity showed a slightly lower mean (64.25 ± 3.68), while Conceptual Biosecurity recorded the lowest (63.85 ± 5.87), reflecting variability in awareness and preventive planning. The scores ranged from 46.15% to 77.27%, suggesting noticeable differences in implementation levels across farms. In generally, the findings highlight room for improvement, particularly in conceptual and operational aspects.

Table 5:  Summary of Biosecurity Scores (n = 50 farms).

Fig. 1 presents the Pearson correlation coefficients among the four biosecurity score components: Conceptual, Structural, Operational, and Overall Scores. As expected, all components showed statistically significant positive correlations (p < .01). The Overall Score was most strongly associated with the Structural Score (r = .85), followed by the Conceptual Score (r = .79) and the Operational Score (r = .72). Moderate correlations were observed among the three component scores, with the Structural and Operational Scores exhibiting the highest inter-component correlation (r = .49). These results suggest that while each component uniquely contributes to the overall biosecurity assessment, the Structural Score may be the most influential factor in determining the overall biosecurity performance.

Fig. 1: Correlation Matrix among Conceptual, Structural, Operational, and Overall Biosecurity Indicators.

Table 6 presents the association between selected farm and farmer-related variables and the level of biosecurity status among poultry farms, analysed using the chi-square (χ²) test. Results indicate that most factors including farm ownership, owner's education, previous experience, training, and infrastructural measures (such as farm fencing, footbath availability, and entry points) were not significantly associated with biosecurity level (p > 0.05). However, farm location (χ² = 11.072, p = 0.026) and vehicle entry prohibition (χ² = 3.889, p = 0.049) showed statistically significant associations with biosecurity status. Farms located in Dagortali and Savar demonstrated comparatively higher levels of biosecurity than those in other areas, suggesting a possible influence of regional awareness or extension activities. 

Table 6: Association between Selected Variables and Farm Biosecurity Status.

Similarly, farms that restricted vehicle entry were more likely to maintain a high biosecurity level, emphasizing the importance of controlling farm access to minimize disease transmission risk. In general, the findings suggest that location-specific management practices and strict access control measures play a crucial role in enhancing biosecurity performance, whereas demographic factors such as education and gender had limited impact on maintaining higher standards of farm hygiene and disease prevention.

The assessment of 50 poultry farms in Dhaka District revealed a moderate overall biosecurity compliance level (mean = 64.46%), indicating that while farms maintain basic hygiene and disease prevention measures, several critical gaps persist. Among the three dimensions, structural biosecurity recorded the highest mean score (65.27%), followed by operational (64.25%) and conceptual (63.85%) components, suggesting that physical infrastructure and facility-related controls are better implemented than awareness-driven and daily operational measures. Most farm owners were male (78%) and moderately educated, with over half having prior poultry experience and biosecurity training, yet these demographic characteristics showed no significant association (p > 0.05) with higher biosecurity scores. However, farm location (p = 0.026) and vehicle-entry prohibition (p = 0.049) were significantly associated with biosecurity level, emphasizing the role of spatial and access-control factors in disease prevention. The strong correlation between structural and overall biosecurity scores (r = 0.85) highlights the importance of maintaining adequate fencing, footbaths, and restricted entry in reducing disease risks. These findings align with earlier research in Bangladesh, where similar moderate biosecurity levels were observed across commercial farms studies (Hassan et al., 2023; Khalil et al., 2023; Islam et al., 2023). 

For instance, (Khalil et al., 2023) reported mean compliance rates between 60% and 68% in central Bangladesh, while (Hassan et al., 2023) documented a 66% overall score in layer farms, both highlighting strong internal hygiene but weak external controls. Similarly, (Akter et al., 2023; Dhakal et al., 2025) found that smaller broiler farms lacked visitor logs, PPE usage, and adequate spatial separation from residential areas, patterns consistent with the present findings. The significant relationship between vehicle restriction and higher biosecurity scores further supports (Gelaude et al., 2014), who reported that controlling vehicle and human movement substantially reduced Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) contamination risk in poultry clusters. Compared to neighbouring regions, such as Nepal, where (Amalraj et al., 2024; Hossain et al., 2024) observed a 57.5% structural compliance rate, Dhaka farms perform moderately better but still lag behind European integrated systems exceeding 80% compliance (DLS, 2023; Hasan et al., 2024). 

Overall, the results suggest that Bangladeshi farms demonstrate awareness and moderate adherence to biosecurity principles, yet consistent weaknesses remain in external access control, record-keeping, and use of protective clothing. To enhance national biosecurity resilience, targeted interventions focusing on farm infrastructure improvement, enforcement of visitor documentation, and promotion of PPE culture are essential. Additionally, cluster-based extension programs emphasizing location-specific risks and continuous monitoring can help elevate compliance from moderate to high, contributing to improved disease prevention and safer poultry production in Bangladesh.

This study concludes that the overall biosecurity status of poultry farms in Dhaka District is moderate (mean = 64.46%), indicating partial adherence to recommended preventive measures and management practices. While structural biosecurity was relatively strong due to good housing conditions, ventilation, and effective wild bird and rodent control, weaknesses persisted in conceptual and operational dimensions, particularly in the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), visitor documentation, and external access management. The significant associations between farm location (p = 0.026) and vehicle-entry restriction (p = 0.049) with overall biosecurity performance underscore the importance of environmental and infrastructural determinants in disease control. These findings are consistent with previous national assessments (Hassan et al., 2023; Khalil et al., 2023; Islam et al., 2023) which also highlighted that most Bangladeshi poultry farms maintain internal hygiene but lack systematic external access control, record-keeping, and training follow-up. Although internal hygiene and structural measures are relatively strong, weaknesses persist in PPE use, visitor management, and documentation.

To address these persistent deficiencies, the study recommends a multi-level strategy: 

1. Establishment of cluster-based training and monitoring programs tailored to local conditions, 
2. Enforcement of mandatory fencing, vehicle disinfection, and visitor logbooks, 
3. Promotion of PPE usage through subsidy or incentive schemes, and 
4. Integration of biosecurity audits into farm licensing and credit programs. 

Such interventions, if implemented through coordinated efforts between the Department of Livestock Services (DLS), extension agencies, and local government units, could elevate farms from moderate to high compliance levels, thereby reducing the incidence of infectious poultry diseases and strengthening Bangladesh's overall food security and public health resilience.

S.H.; and M.S.R.: Study design, organized data, data analysis, manuscript writing and review. S.H.; and F.I.: Study design and manuscript writing. S.H.; and S.A.: Organized data and data analysis. M.F.; A.H.; and F.I.: Field coordination and data collection. All authors read and approved the final manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work, ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part are appropriately investigated and resolved.

The present was conducted in compliance with ethical standards and guidelines. 

Authors confirm that they have no conflicts of interest related to this work.