Rapid urbanization, uncontrolled industrial activities, growing transportation needs and ongoing reliance on traditional energy sources are all key factors contributing to the worsening situation of air pollution in Bangladesh. Various factors including rapid urbanization, unchecked industrial activities, rising transportation demands and continued use of traditional energy sources had been identified as key contributors to the worsening state of air pollution in Bangladesh (Ghaffar, 2023; Hossin et al., 2025). This environmental degradation had pushed Bangladesh into one of the most polluted countries in the world and Dhaka city is often rated as one of the world's most polluted cities (Raza et al., 2023). Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) has become a major concern due to its increasing concentration in the atmosphere which affects the economic, environmental and health development of humans. Air pollution in Bangladesh has a strong link to industrial emissions, burning of fossil fuels, brick kiln activities, vehicle emissions, and urbanization. The pollution sources had proven to be a persistent risk of exposure, especially in urban, densely populated areas. The health impacts of air pollution are becoming increasingly evident and underscore the need to enhance environmental governance and build capacity for air pollution mitigation (Sheikh et al., 2025).

Although a number of environmental laws have been enacted in Bangladesh including the Environmental Conservation Act 1995 and the Air Pollution Control Rules 2022, the country still faces significant issues related to air quality conditions resulting from weak policy implementation, enforcement and institutional coordination (Khan et al., 2023). While legislation has already established good foundations for managing pollution, there are significant gaps in the implementation mechanisms and monitoring capabilities which have limited effectiveness. Due to the persistent rise in PM2.5 levels, PM2.5 had posed significant socio-economic and epidemiological difficulties, putting strain on the national healthcare system (Samiullah et al., 2025). Despite the policy setting in place, the linkage between the effectiveness of the policy, pollution reduction and public health protection has been less understood. Thus, the study of the current governance systems in relation to the health impacts of pollution is of great importance.

Various works have previously investigated various dimensions of air pollution, such as pollutant sources, environmental effects, policy interventions, and health effects. Rapid urbanization, industrial development and fossil fuel consumption are the key factors affecting the air quality in Bangladesh (Ghaffar, 2023; Hossin et al., 2025). Several researchers had also assessed the air pollution governance in Bangladesh and pointed out issues regarding regulatory enforcement, institutional fragmentation, and inadequate monitoring systems (Khan et al., 2023). There had been other studies indicating that the combination of environmental policies with health-based policies, advanced monitoring systems and sustainable energy strategies can enhance pollution management out-comes (Raihan et al., 2022; Azimi & Rahman, 2024). Furthermore, in recent  these have shown that the linkage of atmospheric pollution data with health indicators can deliver improved support for focused interventions and for evidence-based policymaking (Dewan et al., 2022; Aziz, 2024; Lee et al., 2025).

While studies have been conducted on the levels of air pollution, emission sources and health effects separately few studies have looked at the effectiveness of already implemented air pollution control measures in reducing health related effects in Bangladesh. There is still much to learn about the link between regulations, institutional governance capability, effectiveness of pollution abatement and the impact on population health. Previous research had also contributed limited understanding of the role of policy implementation difficulties in the effectiveness of pollution reduction strategies. Thus it is necessary to be careful to investigate whether the existing legislative measures are adequate enough to solve the growing environmental and health problems caused by urban air pollution (Raihan et al., 2022). This study served as a comprehensive evaluation of the policy of air pollution control in Bangladesh combining three significant aspects: policy implementation effectiveness, policy regulatory framework and public health implications. The study was different from other research which focused on measuring pollution or effects on health; the study here focuses on measuring the relationship between the policy mechanisms and their practical outcomes. This study adopted a holistic approach to air pollution management by incorporating an environmental governance analysis and health issues. The study also highlights the need for evidence-based interventions that will link the atmospheric pollution pattern to health risks (Akomolafe et al., 2024; Azimi & Rahman, 2024).

The aim of the study is 

1. To examine the existing air pollution control policies and regulatory frameworks in Bangladesh. 
2. To assess the effectiveness of policy implementation mechanisms in controlling air pollution. 
3. To analyze the relationship between air pollution exposure and public health outcomes in Bangladesh. 
4. To explore strategies for improving air pollution governance and strengthening public health protection. 

The worsening air pollution and its resulting health effected underscore the critical need to evaluate policy and develop better governance approaches. The strengths and weaknesses of existing pollution control regimes must be understood if viable solutions are to be found that safeguard the health of the public and promote sustainable development. This study was significant as it offered empirical knowledge-based information regarding the effectiveness of the policies, the difficulties that come in the way of their implementation and the scope of strengthening the governance on air quality in Bangladesh. The research was designed to help inform policy makers, environmental authorities and public health officials of policy gaps and opportunities for more effective pollution management practices.

The growing urbanization, industrialization, rise in transport volume and reliance on fossil fuels turned air pollution into a serious environmental and public health problem in Bangladesh. The sources, trends and impacts of air pollution had been studied thoroughly in the past with particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) being a major source of environmental degradation and health impacts. Empirical data had revealed that the emissions from brick kilns, vehicular activities, industrial processes and biomass combustion are significant contributors to high levels of PM pollution, causing considerable mortality and morbidity effects in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 2024). Exposure to fine particulate matter for long durations had been linked to respiratory infections, cardiovascular diseases and other non-communicable diseases which pose significant health system and socioeconomic development challenges (Khandker et al., 2022).

The health effects of exposure to air pollution had been highlighted in several studies and they have noted the disproportionate effects of air pollution on vulnerable populations including children, the elderly and those people with pre-existing health conditions. Key pathways in which air pollution is associated with premature death include ischemic heart disease, stroke, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Raza et al., 2023). Additionally, systematic studies all over South Asia had shown that air pollution is a key risk factor for non-communicable diseases and has a high economic and health cost in developing countries (Sharmin, 2025). These results highlighted the need to view air pollution management as a public health problem and not only environmental. In addition to the health effects, the effectiveness of environmental policies and governance mechanisms in reducing air pollution had been studied in the past. Bangladesh has undertaken multiple regulatory efforts and some studies had shown that these efforts are limited by poor institutional coordination and coordination of monitoring systems and institutions and lack of capacity in enforcement of the measures (Adanma & Ogunbiyi, 2024). To achieve effective air quality governance, researchers have stressed the importance of comprehensive emission inventories, the establishment of reliable monitoring networks, and the implementation of evidence-based decision-making mechanisms (Amer et al., 2024; Fatima et al., 2023). Furthermore, the need for putting together data from atmospheric monitoring with health surveillance systems to assess the impact of pollution control actions and to guide adaptive policies has been highlighted in recent studies (Verma & Singh, 2026).

Though previous studies offered important insights into the sources of air pollution, patterns of exposure and the health impacts of air pollution, there is significant knowledge gaps about the effectiveness of air pollution control policies in Bangladesh. Previous studies had been mostly focused on either assessing pollution or making health impact assessments with only a handful of studies addressing the role of policy measures, institutional capacity and governance mechanisms on actual results of pollution reduction and health improvement. The limitation of the literature was the lack of an integrated assessment framework that links the implementation of regulations with environmental and public health effects. While the policies to control air pollution have been put in place, there is still not enough evidence as to whether those policies have successfully lowered concentrations of pollutants or lowered the health risks associated with it. In addition, the pollution influenced from previous studies was not always separated by the emission source which is a problem in designing localized emission source mitigation measures (Kundu et al., 2024). It was also noted that one of the missing ingredients in research is the lack of exposure-response relationships specific to Bangladesh. Generally, many health risk assessments are based on estimates from across the globe that may not reflect the particular demographic, socioeconomic and environmental conditions prevailing in Bangladesh (Hossain et al., 2026; Samiullah et al., 2025). Furthermore, there were few longitudinal studies that assessed the health impact of certain emission reduction measures including upgrading industrial processes and improving brick kiln technology (Brooks et al., 2023). Thus, a holistic strategy that included policy assessment, governance analysis, pollution monitoring and public health assessment is needed.

This study is underpinned by the Environmental Governance Framework which provides an understanding of the links between institutional design, regulatory systems, coordination of stakeholders, and enforcement capacity and their effect on environmental performance. It is suggested that the effectiveness of air pollution management is not just a function of the presence of environmental laws but also of the ability of institutions to enforce, monitor and enact the laws. In this regard, air pollution control is viewed as a four-dimensional continuum of policy making, institutional capacity building, environmental impacts, and public health effects. Pollution management is based on policy instruments such as emission standards and regulations. But their effectiveness relies on institutional capacity and on the availability of reliable environmental data and the coordination of all stakeholders involved. Better governance capacity will help to improve the effectiveness of pollution controls, which will lead to a lower level of exposure to pollution and better health outcomes.

This theoretical approach was especially important for Bangladesh as the impacts of air pollution are shaped by the interplay between industrialization, urbanization, energy use and regulatory constraints. The present study used that framework to look at the presence of pollution reduction policies as well as their actual effectiveness in solving environmental and health problems. Previous studies on air pollution in Bangladesh were categorized into three major research areas: pollution assessment, health impact evaluation and governance analysis. Pollution assessment studies had mainly been conducted to determine the sources of pollution, concentrations of air pollutants and spatial variations in air quality. Islam et al. (2024) and Raza et al. (2023) had for instance, yielded valuable insights into the health effects of particulate matter exposure. However, these studies had largely focused on the characteristics of pollution and have not considered policy responses in terms of their effectiveness. Studies on the health effects made significant contributions to the understanding of the link between exposure to air pollution and disease outcomes. 

The studies of Khandker et al. (2022, 2023) and Sharmin (2025) had shown that the pollution-induced diseases are a critical burden in Bangladesh. However, most of these studies have limited analysis of the potential for governance interventions to mitigate exposure and enhance health. Studies on governance had been conducted that have focused on weaknesses in institutions, regulatory issues and monitoring constraints in the governance of air pollution. The need for better coordination between institutions, better monitoring systems and evidence-based policy making have been highlighted in previous studies (Adanma & Ogunbiyi, 2024; Amer et al., 2024). Few studies, however, have combined governance analysis and environmental/health outcomes information comparatively. Thus, the present study builds on the previous studies by linking the implementation of policy with the improvement of the environment and the protection of public health.

The findings of this study were expected to add to the existing literature by offering an integrated assessment of the air pollution management in Bangladesh by analyzing and discussing policy frameworks, governance effectiveness, environmental impacts, and public health impacts. This study examined the interaction between policy mechanisms and institutional capacity and its effects on pollution control outcomes – an approach that differs from earlier studies that have either focused on measuring pollution or on health impacts. Moreover, the research filled in the existing gaps in the knowledge by highlighting the need for evidence-based governance, better monitoring systems and better institutional coordination. The results can contribute the development of better and more effective air pollution mitigation measures for policy makers, environmental authorities and public health officials. This research provides a contribution to the field of sustainable air quality management in developing countries by connecting air quality and environmental governance.

The study adopted a mixed methods research design to evaluate air pollution control policies and the potential health impacts of these policies in Bangladesh as it allowed the simultaneous use of quantitative measurement and qualitative interpretation which allows a thorough understanding of environmental and social phenomena that are complex (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). The quantitative component allowed for a discussion of relationships between exposure to air pollution, effectiveness of policy implementation, institutional governance quality, environmental awareness and impacts on public health while the qualitative component provided an examination of institutional perceptions of challenges to policy implementation and limitations in institutional governance. Methodological triangulation occurred when the findings in the quantitative and qualitative evidence were combined, thus enhancing the findings because there were measurable patterns and contextual explanations. This integration can be especially useful in the study of environmental governance, where the effectiveness of policies relies on the environmental results as well as the institutional strength, co-ordination of the stakeholders, and processes of implementation (Johnson et al., 2007).

This study was carried out in Bangladesh that has a nation facing growing air pollution problems with the acceleration of urbanization, industrialization, transportation and energy demands. The setting of Bangladesh is relevant to the study of air pollution governance due to the high density of urban population which often results in high levels of particulate matter (PM) especially PM2.5 and PM10 which are linked to environmental and health risks (Islam et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2024). This study was conducted at polluted sites that had high exposure to air quality issues and where pollution was a concern. These regions were deemed suitable for studying the link between pollution exposure, the effectiveness of policy implementation, institutional governance, and public health.

For the quantitative part of the study a total of 385 respondents were obtained. The descriptive statistics indicated that the data collected from the respondents after the necessary processes resulted in a data set of N = 385. The respondents gave answers on exposure to air pollution, effectiveness of policy implementation, quality of institutional governance, environmental awareness, and effects on public health. The constructs measured were Air Pollution Exposure (APE), Policy Implementation Effectiveness (PIE), Institutional Governance Quality (IGQ), Environmental Awareness (EA), and Public Health Impact (PHI).  

Key informants were chosen based on their professional knowledge and participation in policy implementation, public health, environmental regulation and air pollution management. This group provided contextual information about problems in institutions, regulatory enforcement, and governance problems. Purposive sampling was used to identify key informants who have knowledge and practical experience in air pollution governance. Purposive sampling is used when the people to be sampled are targeted because they can supply detailed and contextually rich information about the research question(s) (Palinkas et al., 2015).

Primary data were gathered from the respondents of the survey and KIIs. The survey results included quantitative information on pollution exposure, perceptions of pollution governance, environmental awareness and health effects. Secondary data were collected from published scientific papers, environmental policy documents, environmental regulations and relevant institutional reports and reports on air pollution management in Bangladesh. 

Multiple data sources reinforced the assessment through the integration of empirical evidence and existing evidence regarding air quality governance and impacts on health. Data collected through structured questionnaires, qualitative interview guidelines. The questionnaire aimed to gather data on exposure to air pollution, attitudes towards effectiveness of policies, institutional governance conditions, environmental awareness and health effects. Qualitative data were gathered by conducting interviews with key informants who shared their experiences on how policies were implemented, institutional coordination, regulatory issues, and obstacles to effective control of air pollution. Survey-based evidence, together with stakeholder views, helped to provide a more complete picture of policy performance and governance issues.

The quantitative data were analyzed using statistical tools such as descriptive and inferential analysis to explore the linkages between air pollution exposure, policy implementation effectiveness, institutional governance, environmental awareness and public health outcomes. To check the internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha was used to determine the reliability of the measurement constructs. Thematic analysis was used to process the qualitative data retrieved from the key informant interviews. 

The analysis was carried out in a similar manner to Braun and Clarke (2006), which included coding, identifying patterns and creating themes of policy implementation challenges, institutional governance, and air pollution management. Both approaches were triangulated to achieve an overall picture of air pollution governance and health impacts. The study was undertaken on a voluntary basis and prior to data collection, the participants were briefed on the purpose and objectives of the study. Participants gave informed consent and their confidentiality and anonymity were protected for their privacy. The information collected was used solely for academic purposes and ethical research practices were adhered to in the process of data collection, analysis and reporting.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Research Variables (N = 385).

The descriptive statistics for the research variables are shown in Table 1 based on 385 respondents. The results revealed that the mean score (M = 3.94, SD = 0.72) of Air Pollution Exposure (APE) was the highest among respondents, showing high level of perceived exposure to air pollution among the respondents. The other DAFW questions regarding the perceived health effects of air pollution yielded high mean values with high standard deviations, indicating strong perceived impacts on public health. The other DAFW questions about perceived impacts on public health from air pollution also had high mean values and high standard deviations, M = 3.85, SD = 0.74. 

The mean score of Environmental Awareness (EA) was 3.77 with a standard deviation of 0.69 indicating high awareness level of the participants. On the other hand, Policy Implementation Effectiveness (PIE) (M = 2.73, SD = 0.79) and Institutional Governance Quality (IGQ) (M = 2.68, SD = 0.76) had relatively low scores, highlighting worries about policy implementation and institutional governance quality.

Table 2: Reliability Analysis (Cronbach's Alpha).

The results are presented in the reliability statistics of the research constructs as shown in Table 2. All the variables had Cronbach alpha values above the suggested level of 0.70, signifying good internal consistency and reliability of the measurement scales. The highest reliability was for Public Health Impact (PHI) (α = 0.891), followed by Policy Implementation Effectiveness (PIE) (α = 0.872) and Institutional Governance Quality (IGQ) (α = 0.858) of the constructs. The reliability of the Air Pollution Exposure (APE) (α = 0.846) and Environmental Awareness (EA) (α = 0.817) were also acceptable. The internal consistency of the 27 measurement items in the overall questionnaire was excellent (α = 0.907). The findings of this study showed that the reliability of the survey instrument was acceptable and appropriate for further statistical analysis such as correlation and regression analysis.

Table 3: Pearson Correlation Matrix.

Pearson correlation was used to obtain the correlation matrix among study variables as presented in Table 3. The results reveal that there is a significant positive correlation between the air pollution exposure (APE) and public health impact (PHI) (r = 0.62, p < 0.01), with higher levels of air pollution exposure being related to higher levels of public health impact. APE is negatively correlated with Policy Implementation Effectiveness (PIE) (r = -0.43) and Institutional Governance Quality (IGQ) (r = -0.39), indicating that higher pollution exposure is related to lower governance and policy effectiveness. The relationships between PIE and IGQ are positive, and strong (r = 0.66), which means there is a close association between them for enhancing air pollution management. Overall, the correlation results agree with the significance of the relationships between pollution exposure, governance factors, and public health outcomes, thus justifying further regression analysis.

Table 4: ANOVA Test for Regression Model.

The ANOVA results of the regression model were shown in Table 4. The overall regression model was statistically significant (F = 96.84, p < 0.001) which means that the independent variables combined together have a significant effect on the dependent variable. The sum of squares for the regression (91.624) is greater than the residual sum of squares (89.830), indicating that the model accounts for a significant amount of the variance in the dependent variable. The significant F-value indicates that the regression model fits better than a model with no predictors with 380 residual degrees of freedom and 4 predictors. Overall, the results obtained from the ANOVA support the use of the selected explanatory variables to predict the outcome variable and they can be used to interpret the regression coefficients further.

Table 5: Regression Coefficients.

The regression results of the effects of the study variables on Public Health Impact (PHI) are presented in Table 5. The results show that Air Pollution Exposure (APE) is positively associated with PHI (β = 0.526, p < 0.001) suggesting that the more an individual is exposed to pollution, the greater the negative health impacts. Conversely, there are significant negative effects for Policy Implementation Effectiveness (PIE) (β = -0.241, p < 0.001), Ins-titutional Governance Quality (IGQ) (β = -0.198, p = 0.001) and Environmental Awareness (EA) (β = -0.104, p = 0.018), indicating that higher levels of governance, effective policy implementation, and environmental awareness contribute to mitigating the health impacts associated with pollution. In general, the results of the regression indicate that air pollution exposure is a significant determinant of adverse health outcomes, and that better governance and awareness of the issue can reduce those impacts.

Qualitative Findings

The challenges to policy implementation and governance

From the key informant interviews, four major themes emerged around air pollution governance in Bangladesh: issues of policy implementation, institutional capacity gaps, governance fragmentation and policy strategies for improving air pollution governance.

Policy Implementation Gaps

Although Bangladesh has drafted a number of policies to tackle air pollution, there was significant unmet demand from the policy formulation to implementation. Respondents highlighted that policy is not effective due to lack of enforcement, compliance monitoring and follow-up mechanisms. The analysis reveals that the problem is not with lack of regulation, but with the enforcement of regulation in different parts of the different pollution intensive sectors.

Limited capacity and monitoring in institutions

Poor monitoring capacity, lack of technical information and institutional capacity were identified as significant barriers for successful air pollution management. Stakeholders say the lack of regularly reported and reliable pollution data is a barrier to evidence-based decision making and quick interventions. This discovery further substantiates the importance of integrating environmental monitoring into the policy assessment and policy in governance. 

Fragmented Governance and Coordination Challenges

The interviews revealed that the main reason for the lack of coordination in pollution management is the lack of coordination among the different environmental, transportation, industrial and health institutions. Limited inter-agency cooperation poses challenges in enforcing emission standards, and implementation of effective mitigation strategies. This lack of institutional control over the environmental policy was mentioned in previous research. 

International best practices for better governance

The participants highlighted the necessity of more enforcement, real time monitoring systems and more institutional coordination and public involvement for improved management of air quality. The findings suggest that good governance of air pollution should not only involve policy processes, but also a mix of regulatory, technological and participatory tools and mechanisms in the implementation of these policies.

The overall qualitative results reflect that the air pollution problem in Bangladesh is more related to the implementation and governance issues, rather than due to the lack of policy frameworks. Building institutional capacity, enhancing monitoring and enforcement systems are critical elements to achieve sustainable improvements in air quality and public health protection.