Through the application of agroforestry, crop produc-tion can be maintained while providing an alternate solution to ecological problems (Amare et al., 2019; Mbow et al., 2014). According to the spatial arrange-ment or temporal order, this system integrates tree culture, crop cultivation, and/or animal production on the same land management (Santoro et al., 2020). Thro-ugh sustainable land management (including reforesta-tion) and effective resource management, agroforestry can help conserve natural ecosystems. Additionally, agroforestry has the potential to mitigate climate change because it involves several activities that have been shown to increase carbon absorption and hence lower GHG emissions (Mbow et al., 2014; Bai et al., 2019). Furthermore, the system can support biodiver-sity by incorporating several plant/crop species that could serve as homes for a variety of wildlife (Asso-gbadjo et al., 2012; Santos et al., 2019). Numerous studies have emphasized the socioeconomic advanta-ges of agroforestry for rural populations in addition to its beneficial effects on the environment (Browder et al., 2005). Implementing a broad agroecosystem with livestock, trees and other crops could increase the communitys economic resilience (Maia et al., 2021). Through a variety of food sources, the system may also increase household food security (Duffy et al., 2021; Kiptot et al., 2014; and Ali et al., 2022).

Ripple et al. (2019) noted that climate change is cur-rently occurring and that immediate action is needed to keep the global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees (Mbow et al., 2017). Risks associated with climate change, such as severe droughts, flooding, and dis-eases, can have a significant negative influence on agricultural systems, leading to soil erosion, crop fai-lure, biodiversity loss, decreased soil moisture, in-sect damage, and financial losses. Farmers are already fin-ding it challenging to plan planting and harvesting due to more extreme events and more frequent drier and wetter weather, endangering current production sys-tems and the availability of food. To reduce carbon emissions and meet the goals outlined in the Paris Agreement, agriculture, forests, and trees are essential (Tengberg et al., 2018; Alam et al., 2022). 

Although the potential contribution of agroforestry systems to the maintenance of the ecosystem is still in argument and it remains largely unexplored (Harvey and Villalobos, 2007). Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical data on the relationships between agro-forestry and household livelihood resilience, parti-cularly concerning mitigating climate change (Lin, 2011; Nair and Garrity, 2012). These are all brought on by a lack of comprehensive empirical data. There-fore, the purpose of this paper is to provide empirical information specific contribution that agroforestry makes to ecosystem services as well as to solutions to climate change. 

Agroforestry for Socio-economic Benefits

The inclusion of woody plants within the system distinguishes agroforestry from other land-use systems. By diversifying the products produced, this type of tree-based farming can increase economic resilience from an economic viewpoint (Mbow et al., 2014). The use of multipurpose trees, in particular, may increase the profitability of agroforestry since they can fulfill a variety of needs, including providing alternate sources of revenue, fodder, or food (such as wild edible fruits) during hard times among rural people (Gebru et al., 2019). Additionally, in addition to the money generat-ed by yearly crops, some trees with higher economic value can be able to generate income for the comm.-unity. According to research conducted by Roshetko et al, (2013) revealed that, in Indonesia, teak-agroforestry (Tectona grandis) practices can generate up to 12% of the total household income, even though these systems have a reduced recycling time. Additionally, a study on the agro forestry of damar (Agathis dammara) in Pesisir, West Sumatra, revealed that the production of damar contributed up to 50% of the households over-all revenue (Wollenberg and Nawir, 2005). Further-more, the implementation of coffee agro forestry in Wey-Besay Watershed, Lampung, & increased house-hold income by more than 50% compared toonly 12% from the traditional agriculture method (Suyanto et al., 2007). Another way to increase the benefit-to-cost ratio is through agroforestry. Some techniques involve growing woody plants that require little input (chemi-cal fertilizers, insecticides, etc.), which can reduce pro-duction costs and increase farmer revenue (Martinelli et al., 2019; Maia et al., 2021). The farmers under-standing of the procedure, particularly regarding how to choose the best plants or trees for their system, maybe a major factor in how this outcome turns out. Some trees benefit from being grown alongside crops that are complementary to them. Contrarily, the incur-rect choice of tree or crop components can result in nutrient competition (Reynolds et al., 2007) which consequently reduces yield and farmers profit. In rural areas, the implementation of agroforestry may create new employment opportunities for off-farm tasks (Table 1) (Iskandar et al., 2016).Women may also benefit from more job opportunities since they can participate directly in production activities, which can increase gender equality in rural areas (Kiptot et al., 2014). Additionally, keeping jobs in rural regions may also reduce rural migration and boost their economy (Ollinaho and Kröger, 2021). Agroforestry can boost food and nutrition security for those living near forests while also generating revenue. Ickowitz et al. (2016)s analysis of spatial data revealed that children in Indonesia between the ages of one and five were con-suming micronutrients at a higher rate than previously thought. Their research revealed that agroforestry raises the consumption of vitamin A-rich fruits and leafy vegetables at the regional level. Following the introduction of agroforestry, low-income farmers who had participated in agroforestry training also showed increased food output and diversity, indicating greater food availability (Pratiwi and Suzuki, 2019). Other studies, including those undertaken in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America, have found a positive association between agroforestry adoption and household food security (Mbo et al., 2014; Kiptot et al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2016). 

Agroforestry for Ecosystem Services

Agroforestry includes several ecological practices that have the potential to improve ecosystem services for rural areas. These practices include improving soil fer-tility, reducing erosion, improving water quality, pro-moting biodiversity, improving aesthetics, and seques-tering carbon (Mukhlis et al., 2022). It is widely ack-nowledged that the services and benefits supplied by agroforestry methods occur at many geographical and temporal ranges. 

Biodiversity Conservation 

Ecosystems and species critical to human survival and the health of our planet are disappearing at an alarming rate. Scientists and politicians are becoming more con-scious of the importance of agroforestry in preserving biological variety in both tropical and temperate reg-ions of the world. Several authors have examined how agroforestry systems contribute to biodiversity (Atan-gana et al., 2014; Jose, 2012; Harvey et al., 2006). Agroforestry serves critical purposes in biodiversity conservation such as

1) Provides habitat for species that can withstand some disturbance 

2) Aids in the preservation of sensitive species germplasm 

3) Reduces the rate of natural habitat conversion by providing a more productive, long-term alterna-tive to typical agriculture techniques that may include destroying natural ecosystems 

4) Creates connectivity between habitat remnants, which may help to maintain the integrity of these remnants and the conservation of area-sensitive floral and faunal species and 

5) Helps to sustain biological variety by providing additional ecosystem services such as erosion control and water recharge, minimizing habitat degradation and loss.

Agroforestry for Soil Enrichment 

Agro forestry has a well-established role in boosting and sustaining long-term soil productivity and sustain-ability. Nitrogen-fixing trees and crops are widely used in tropical agroforestry systems (Jose, 2009). Non-N-fixing trees can also improve soils physical, chemical, and biological qualities in agroforestry systems by supplying a considerable amount of above and below-ground organic matter and releasing and recycling nutrients (Udawatta et al., 2011). Agroforestry systems have also been demonstrated to be capable of reclaim-ing polluted land and lowering soil salinization and acidity (Dhyan et al., 2016). One of the most viable ways for managing land and soil resources is eco-restoration and soil resource sustainability is expected to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) through agro forestry (Aldeen et al., 2013; Dhyan et al., 2016) and rhizospheric effects boost land production (Saha et al., 2010), reduce soil erosion (Udawatta et al., 2011), retain soil moisture, and diversify farm revenue (Dagar et al., 2013).

Agroforestry for Better Air and Water Quality 

Windbreaks and shelterbelts, for example, are adver-tised as having numerous benefits. These benefits in-clude efficiently shielding buildings and streets from drifting snow, cost savings in animal production by lowering wind chills, crop protection, wildlife habitat, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide and creating oxygen, reducing wind velocity and thus limiting wind erosion and particulate matter in the air, noise pollu-tion reduction, and odor mitigation from concentrated livestock operations, among others. There has been a lot of interest in using shelterbelts as a potential option for dealing with livestock odor in recent years (Tyndall and Colletti, 2007). The bulk of odor-causing chemi-cals and compounds are carried as aerosols (parti-culates). Vegetative buffers can filter particles from airstreams by removing dust, gas, and microbial com-ponents. They concentrate on swine odor in their extensive review of the subject. When planted in strategic patterns, these authors claim that they effect-ively manage odor in a socioeconomically reasonable manner. Crops absorb less than half of the nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer used in conventional farming methods. Surplus fertilizer is either transported away from agricultural fields by surface runoff or leached into the subsurface water supply, contaminating water sources and reducing water quality (Tilman et al., 2011). Agricultural surface runoff, for example, can contribute significantly to eutrophication in the Gulf of Mexico by delivering excessive silt, fertilizer, and pesticides to recipient water bodies. Riparian buffers, for example, have been suggested as a solution to re-duce non-point source pollution from agricultural areas. Riparian buffers aid in the cleaning of runoff water by slowing it down, allowing for greater infiltra-tion, sediment deposition, and nutrient retention. In agroforestry systems, trees with deep root systems can help enhance groundwater quality by acting as a "safety net," collecting excess nutrients leached below the rooting zone of agronomic crops. These nutrients are then recycled back into the system through root turnover and litterfall, increasing the nutrient consum-ption efficiency of the system (Montagnini, 2006).

Agroforestry Solutions for Climate Change

Climate Change Mitigation through Agro forestry without a doubt, different AF methods can lower atmospheric CO2 levels as fossil fuels are substituted. AFS may collect ambient carbon and store it in many components, including the bole, branch, foliage, and root. As a result, agroforestry is a form of a low-carbon farming system that combines the provision of food security in a changing climate with the sequestration of ambient carbon in soil and vegetation through the man-agement of natural resources such as light, land, water, and nutrients (Jhariya et al., 2021; Yadav et al., 2017). Short rotation forestry programs that use fast-growing, high-yield trees result in larger biomass because they absorb more CO2. According to Raj et al. (2019), the worldwide storage capacity for C under AFS ranges from 0.3 to 15.2 mega C/ha/year, with the humid tropics having the highest storage capacity compared to other high-rainfall regions. There are different meth-ods for calculating the amount of carbon stored in agro forestry systems; some are based on in-situ measure-ments, but the application of varied assumptions gene-rates substantial discrepancies in the data (Kumar et al., 2012). The reported carbon stocks and carbon sequestration vary greatly among African agroforestry systems. Agro-silver-pastoral systems, for example, combine rich carbon stocks with a high potential for sequestration (Table 2). 

Agroforestry systems can also greatly reduce the de-mand for energy from wild forests. According to some authors, growing demand for tree products may moti-vate farmers to engage in agro forestry (Sood and Mitchell, 2011), particularly in places where fuel wood supplies are limited. The expansion of agro forestry for sustainable fuel wood can assist in the replacement of energy sources and evolve into a substantial carbon offset alternative (Luedeling et al., 2011).

Climate Change Adaptation through Agroforestry

Climate change threatens tropical agriculture, parti-cularly subsistence agriculture (Verchot et al., 2007). Due to declining soil fertility, water availability, and biodiversity loss, Africas agricultural production faces sustainability issues, and yields of significant cereal crops, such as maize, have plateaued at 1 ton ha-1 (Carsan et al., 2014). Smallholder farmers livelihoods are thus seriously threatened by insufficient food pro-duction for household consumption, particularly in areas characterized by more changing climate and fluc-tuation. Agroforestry can help smallholder farmers adapt to changing climate because they lack the resour-ces to do so (Lasco et al., 2014). Agro forestry can increase smallholders resilience to present and future climatic hazards, such as future climate change, both at the farm and landscape scales (Hoang et al., 2014; Lasco et al., 2014). Even in areas where the water, soil, and biodiversity are damaged, they are essential to maintaining homes. Through the provision of several direct and indirect ecosystem goods and services, the trees component of farming has significantly improved land productivity and livelihoods (Dhyan et al., 2016). In the highlands of Eastern Africa, fodder trees in agroforestry systems are especially crucial, according to Franzel et al. (2014), primarily to feed dairy cows and satisfy output shortages during periods of harsh climatic circumstances, such as droughts. These fodder trees are simple to grow, need little land, labor, or capital, produce a variety of byproducts, and frequ-ently supply feed within a year of planting. How-ever, several major obstacles prevent the widespread use of fodder trees, including the lack of species sui-table for different agro ecological zones, a lack of seed, and farmers lack of knowledge and expertise required to grow them. Agro forestry techniques, such as park-lands, are crucial because they provide soil cover with trees and shrubs, which prevents erosion and mitigates the effects of climate change. In risky regions like the Sahelian zone of West Africa, they give green fodder to supplement crop wastes for live-stock feeds, fruits, and leaves for human consumption, as well as help farmers, generate cash. The interactions between diver-se agro forestry system components have an impact on the ecosystem service functions of parkland trees (pro-viding, regulating, and sustaining services) in several different ways (Bayala et al., 2014). By providing wood fuels, agro forestry has also played a significant part in SSAs energy pro-vision and is expected to continue to dominate the regions populations energy portfolio in the future decades (Iiyama et al., 2014). For instance, Asase and Tetteh, (2010) stated that of the 20 species identified in Ghanas agroforestry, 100% of them were used as fuel wood and 83% as medicines. According to a study conducted in western Kenya, the existence of trees on farms provides a more readily available, secure, and stable source of fuelwood for energy and income, notably to the benefit of women (Thorlakson and Neufeldt, 2012). According to Syampungani et al. (2010), well-designed and well-managed agroforestry have some positive effects on yield and income as well as the possibility of continued production. For exam-ple, home garden species are crucial to small-scale household honey production for income (Sileshi et al., 2007). Similar to this Bachi, (2017) found that about 24.4 percent and 10% of respondents, respectively, utilized woody plants for income, and beekeeping helped them to acquire market priced food for sub-sistence. Agroforestry adopters have improved cash in-come and food security, according to numerous reports (Linger, 2014; Bachi, 2017; Kassa et al., 2018). 

According to Eshete, (2013), 46% of the honey mar-keted in 2010 in southwest Ethiopia came from agro-forestry based on coffee. Mekonen et al. (2015) indi-cate that, in Ethiopia, around 25% of plant species were used for food, 13% for medicine, and 10% for household tools. Fertilized tree species (FTS) are well known to significantly boost maize yields when com-pared to maize farming without fertilizer in Zambia (Pretty et al., 2011). The utilization of trees in agro-forestry, which provides advantages as part of farming livelihoods, also contributes to food security in Africa in the face of climatic change (Mbow et al., 2014). Shade has a direct impact on minimizing microclimate variability and retaining soil moisture. This decreases the chance of crop failure or a decrease in crop output by protecting the crop of interest from extreme climate occurrences. In comparison to crops with little shading (10-30%), coffee grown in heavy shade (60-80%) was kept 2-3°C cooler during the hottest time (Lin, 2007). According to Lin, (2014), crops cultivated in open spaces lose between 31 and 41 percent of their moisture from soil evaporation and plant transpiration. Furthermore, it was shown that coffee beans grew larger under agroforestry (under trees) than they did in full sun, even though full sun produced more fruiting and beans per cluster (Youkhana and Idol, 2010). Ad-ditionally, under the influence of climate change, coffee production and biodiversity preservation may be harmonized through the employment of agroforestry systems, which may also contribute to some regulating and supporting ecosystem services (De Souza et al., 2012). The varied traditional cocoa forest gardens may aid in controlling pests and illnesses and enable effective adaptability to shift socioeconomic condi-tions, according to a study (Bisseleua et al., 2008). Kebebew and Urgessa, (2011) argue that tree-based agricultural systems are more lucrative and less harm-ful than other agricultural solutions since they supply a broader range of goods and are less likely to be affec-ted by pests, allowing farmers to avoid dangers. Agro-forestry can protect farm productivity by providing naturally occurring side effects such as improved nut-rient cycling, integrated pest management, and increa-sed disease resistance. Agroforestry technologies us-ually boost crop diversity within the systems, in-creasing the range of food, fuel, and fodder products generated for smallholder farmers and reducing wind damage by up to twice the height of the windbreak (Lin, 2014). As a result, a range of agroforestry sys-tems may enable various types of adaptation to occur under a variety of climatic conditions. However, the degree of diversity introduced into the system will influence the co-benefit levels, with greater diversity within the agro forestry system resulting in higher co-benefits (Schoeneberger, 2009). As a result, the eco-system services provided by agroforestry assist people and other ecosystems are becoming more resilient to the effects of climatic variation and change.

The provision of ecosystem services is essential to human welfare. Agroforestry is an integrated land-use system that can help to conserve the environment, reduce CO2 emissions, and improve livelihood resili-ence to climatic variability and change. It minimizes emissions from deforestation and soil erosion while also relieving pressure on natural forestation by storing CO2 in living biomass and soil. Recognizing and successfully managing the different socioeconomic and environmental constraints that prohibit agrofores-try from realizing its full potential for maintenance, conservation, and CO2 reduction is critical. The poten-tial of agro forestry must also be understood by deci-sion-makers and the general public, and land-owners must be assisted in terms of technical knowhow, access to and selection of appropriate planting species, and management. Future research should focus on determining the optimal ways to combine multiple agro forestry components, diversifying agro-forestry components and management strategies, assessing the multitude of ecosystem services given by various agro forestry systems, and the contributions of urban agro-forestry to ecosystem preservation and climate change management.

We would like to thank Zebene Asfaw PhD for their suggestions, thoughts, and guidance. We also want to thank my friends for their help, advice, opinions, and suggestions.

There are no conflicts of interest regarding the public-cation of this manuscript, and no significant financial support for this work has been provided that could have influenced its outcome.